Territorial behavior

 A territory is an area held and defended by an organism or group of organisms of the same or different species. Territorial behavior is common to all vertebrates except amphibian but is rare in non-vertebrates.

The exact function of territory formation varies from species to species, but in all cases, it ensures that each mating pair of organisms and their offsprings are adequately spaced to receive a share of the available resources, such as food and breeding space. In this way, species achieves optimum utilization of the habitat.

The size of territories occupied by any particular species varies from season to season according to the availability of environmental resources. Birds of prey and large carnivores have territories several square miles in area in order to provide all their food requirements. Herring gulls and penguins have territories of only a few square metres, since they move out of their territories to feed and use them for breeding purposes only.

Territories are found prior to breeding, usually by males. Defense of the area is greatest at the time of breeding and fiercest between males of the same species. There are a variety of behavioral activities associated with territory formation and they involve threat displays between owners of adjacent territories. These threat displays involve certain stimuli which act as releasers. E.g. An adult male robin would attack another adult male displaying a red breast and a bunch of red feathers, but not a young male robin which did not have a red breast. The level of aggression shown by an organism increases towards the centre of the territory. The aggressiveness of males is determined partly by the level of testosterone in the body and this can affect territory size. E.g. the territory size of a red

grouse can be increased by injecting the bird with testosterone. Territories are acquired through threats, gestures and postures in place of actual fighting. Having obtained a territory, many species especially carnivores proceed to mark out the boundary by leaving a scent trail. This may be done by urinating or rubbing parts of the body against objects called scent posts along the boundary of the territory.