Introduction
Chromatography is one of the most important
separation techniques used in chemistry, biochemistry, molecular biology,
biotechnology, pharmaceutical science, environmental science and clinical
analysis.
The
fundamental idea is simple: components of a mixture distribute differently
between a stationary phase and a mobile phase. Because different
molecules interact differently with these phases, they move at different rates
and become separated.
The
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) defines
chromatography as a physical separation method in which components are
distributed between two phases, one stationary and the other moving in a
definite direction.
Chromatography
can therefore be used for:
- Separation of mixture
components
- Identification of compounds
- Purification of biomolecules
- Determination of molecular
properties
- Quantitative analysis
- Structural investigation
- Monitoring chemical and
biochemical reactions
1.
Basic Principle of Chromatography
Every
chromatographic system contains two essential phases:
1.
Stationary phase
The
stationary phase remains fixed in position.
Examples
include:
- Silica gel
- Alumina
- Cellulose
- Ion-exchange resins
- Polymer gels
- C18-bonded silica
- Affinity ligands
- Liquid films immobilized on
solid supports
2.
Mobile phase
The mobile
phase moves through or over the stationary phase.
It may be:
- A liquid
- A gas
- A supercritical fluid
The
components of a sample repeatedly interact with both phases.
A
component that has a greater affinity for the stationary phase generally moves
more slowly, whereas a component with greater affinity for the mobile phase
generally moves faster.
Simplified
concept
Sample
mixture → interaction with stationary/mobile phases → differential migration →
separation
Stationary
phaseMobile phase (solvent)Origin · Leaf pigmentsSolvent front7.20 cm3.60 cm
For example, when leaf pigments are separated by planar chromatography, different pigments migrate different distances because their interactions with the stationary phase and solvent differ.
2. Why
Does Chromatographic Separation Occur?
Separation
depends on differences in physicochemical properties such as:
- Polarity
- Molecular size
- Charge
- Solubility
- Hydrophobicity
- Adsorption
- Partition coefficient
- Specific biological affinity
- Volatility
Thus,
chromatography does not have a single separation mechanism.
Different
chromatographic techniques exploit different properties.
3.
Major Classification of Chromatography
Chromatography
can be classified according to several criteria.
A.
Based on geometry
1.
Planar chromatography
The
stationary phase is present on a flat surface.
Examples:
- Paper chromatography
- Thin-layer chromatography
(TLC)
2.
Column chromatography
The
stationary phase is contained inside a column.
Examples:
- Adsorption column
chromatography
- Ion-exchange chromatography
- Size-exclusion chromatography
- Affinity chromatography
- HPLC
- Gas chromatography
B.
Based on the physical state of the mobile phase
|
Mobile
phase |
Technique |
|
Liquid |
Liquid
chromatography |
|
Gas |
Gas
chromatography |
|
Supercritical
fluid |
Supercritical-fluid
chromatography |
IUPAC
specifically defines gas chromatography as a separation technique in which the
mobile phase is a gas, and GC is performed in a column.
4.
Classification Based on Separation Mechanism
The major
mechanisms include:
- Adsorption chromatography
- Partition chromatography
- Ion-exchange chromatography
- Size-exclusion chromatography
- Affinity chromatography
These
mechanisms are fundamental for understanding chromatography.
5.
Adsorption Chromatography
Adsorption
chromatography separates molecules according to their different degrees of adsorption
onto a solid stationary phase.
Stationary
phase
Common
stationary phases include:
- Silica
- Alumina
Mobile
phase
The mobile
phase may be:
- Liquid
- Gas
Molecules
that interact strongly with the stationary phase move more slowly.
Molecules
that interact weakly move more rapidly.
Examples
- Thin-layer chromatography
- Column chromatography
- Some forms of gas-solid
chromatography
Applications
Adsorption
chromatography is useful for separating:
- Pigments
- Lipids
- Organic compounds
- Plant metabolites
- Small molecules
6.
Partition Chromatography
Partition
chromatography depends primarily on the distribution of a solute between two
phases.
The
stationary phase is generally a liquid immobilized on a solid support or
chemically bonded to a solid surface, while the mobile phase is another fluid.
The
separation depends on differences in the partitioning behavior of molecules
between the two phases.
Gas-liquid
chromatography is an important example in which components partition between
the gas mobile phase and a liquid stationary phase.
7.
Paper Chromatography
Paper
chromatography is a simple planar chromatographic technique.
It is
particularly useful for educational laboratories and preliminary analysis.
Principle
Separation
occurs because different compounds distribute differently between:
- Stationary phase associated
with the paper
- Mobile solvent
Basic
procedure
- Prepare the sample.
- Apply a small spot to the
chromatography paper.
- Place the paper in a
developing chamber containing solvent.
- Allow the solvent to move
through the paper.
- Components migrate at
different rates.
- Remove and dry the paper.
- Visualize the separated spots.
Applications
Paper
chromatography can be used to separate:
- Amino acids
- Sugars
- Plant pigments
- Small polar molecules
8.
Thin-Layer Chromatography (TLC)
TLC is
another planar chromatographic technique.
A thin
layer of adsorbent, commonly silica gel or alumina, is coated onto a plate.
Principle
Different
compounds travel different distances because they have different affinities
for:
- Stationary phase
- Mobile phase
General
steps
Sample
application → development → drying → visualization
Visualization
can be performed using:
- UV light
- Iodine vapour
- Chemical reagents
- Specific staining reagents
Applications
TLC is
widely used for:
- Checking sample purity
- Monitoring reactions
- Identifying compounds
- Comparing samples
- Preliminary separation of
mixtures
9.
Retention Factor (Rf)
One of the
most important parameters in planar chromatography is the retention factor.
For
example, if a compound travels 4 cm and the solvent front travels 8 cm:
Important
points
- Rf has no units.
- Under identical experimental
conditions, a compound can produce a characteristic Rf value.
- Rf values depend strongly on
solvent composition, stationary phase, temperature, sample loading and
experimental conditions.
- Rf values should therefore not
be treated as universal constants.
10.
Column Chromatography
In column
chromatography, the stationary phase is packed into a column and the mobile
phase passes through it.
A mixture
is introduced into the column.
Different
components interact differently with the stationary phase and therefore emerge
at different times.
Basic
sequence
Sample
→ column → differential retention → elution → separated fractions
Important
terms
Elution: Removal of compounds from the
column by the mobile phase.
Eluent: The solvent/mobile phase entering
the column.
Eluate: Material coming out of the column.
Applications
Column
chromatography is commonly used for:
- Purification of organic
compounds
- Separation of pigments
- Protein purification
- Metabolite purification
- Biochemical research
11.
Ion-Exchange Chromatography
Ion-exchange
chromatography separates molecules according to their net electrical charge.
The
stationary phase contains charged groups.
Two
major types
Cation-exchange
chromatography
The
stationary phase carries negative charges and binds positively charged
molecules.
Anion-exchange
chromatography
The
stationary phase carries positive charges and binds negatively charged
molecules.
Factors
affecting ion-exchange separation
Important
variables include:
- pH
- Ionic strength
- Type of buffer
- Charge of analyte
- Nature of ion-exchange resin
Elution
Bound
molecules can be released by changing:
- Salt concentration
- pH
- Ionic conditions
Applications
Ion-exchange
chromatography is widely used for:
- Protein purification
- Amino-acid separation
- Nucleic-acid purification
- Water analysis
- Pharmaceutical analysis
12.
Size-Exclusion Chromatography
Size-exclusion
chromatography separates molecules according to their effective molecular
size in solution.
It is also
called:
- Gel filtration chromatography
— commonly for aqueous biological systems
- Gel permeation chromatography
— commonly for polymers and organic solvents
Principle
The
stationary phase contains porous particles.
Large
molecules cannot enter many of the pores.
Small
molecules can enter more pores and consequently spend more time inside the
stationary phase.
Therefore:
Large
molecules generally elute first.
Small
molecules generally elute later.
Applications
Size-exclusion
chromatography is used for:
- Protein purification
- Molecular-size estimation
- Polymer characterization
- Desalting
- Aggregate analysis
13.
Affinity Chromatography
Affinity
chromatography is one of the most selective forms of chromatography.
It
exploits a specific biological interaction between a target molecule and
a ligand attached to the stationary phase.
Examples
of interactions include:
- Enzyme–substrate/inhibitor
- Antigen–antibody
- Receptor–ligand
- DNA–binding protein
- Metal ion–histidine-tagged
protein
General
process
Sample
loading → specific binding → washing → elution
Most
unwanted molecules pass through during washing, while the target molecule
remains bound.
The target
can subsequently be released by changing suitable conditions.
Applications
Affinity
chromatography is particularly important in:
- Recombinant protein
purification
- Antibody purification
- Enzyme purification
- Molecular biology
- Biotechnology
14.
High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)
High-performance
liquid chromatography (HPLC)
is a sophisticated form of liquid chromatography that uses high-pressure
pumping to move the mobile phase through a packed column.
It
provides high resolution and can be used for both qualitative and quantitative
analysis.
Major
components of an HPLC system
A typical
HPLC system contains:
- Solvent reservoir
- Degasser
- Pump
- Injector/autosampler
- Column
- Detector
- Data acquisition system
Simplified
flow
Solvent
→ Pump → Injector → Column → Detector → Data system
15.
HPLC Column
The column
contains the stationary phase.
Common
stationary-phase materials are based on silica particles.
A
particularly important mode is reversed-phase HPLC.
Reversed-phase
HPLC
The
stationary phase is relatively nonpolar/hydrophobic, commonly involving
alkyl-bonded silica such as C18.
The mobile
phase is relatively polar, often involving mixtures of:
- Water
- Methanol
- Acetonitrile
Hydrophobic
compounds generally interact more strongly with the stationary phase and
therefore have greater retention.
16.
Normal-Phase vs Reversed-Phase Chromatography
|
Feature |
Normal
phase |
Reversed
phase |
|
Stationary
phase |
Relatively
polar |
Relatively
nonpolar |
|
Mobile
phase |
Relatively
nonpolar |
Relatively
polar |
|
Common
stationary phase |
Silica |
C18-bonded
silica |
|
Common
use |
Polar/nonpolar
organic separations |
Broad
range of analytical separations |
Reversed-phase
LC is particularly important in modern analytical chemistry and biological
analysis.
17.
HPLC Elution Modes
Isocratic
elution
The
mobile-phase composition remains constant throughout the separation.
Gradient
elution
The
composition of the mobile phase changes during the run.
Gradient
elution is useful when a sample contains compounds with widely different
retention characteristics.
18.
HPLC Detectors
Several
detectors can be coupled to liquid chromatography.
UV-Visible
detector
Measures
absorption of ultraviolet or visible radiation.
Commonly
used for compounds that absorb UV/visible light.
Photodiode-array
detector (PDA/DAD)
Provides
spectral information across a range of wavelengths and can help assess peak
identity and purity.
Fluorescence
detector
Useful for
naturally fluorescent compounds or compounds that have been derivatized to
become fluorescent.
Refractive-index
detector
Measures
changes in refractive index.
Useful for
some compounds that have weak UV absorption.
Mass
spectrometric detection
LC can
also be coupled to mass spectrometry, producing LC-MS systems with
powerful analytical capabilities.
19.
Chromatogram
The output
of an instrumental chromatographic separation is generally called a chromatogram.
A
chromatogram typically displays:
- Detector response on the
y-axis
- Time on the x-axis
Each
component may appear as a peak.
Important
parameters
- Retention time
- Peak height
- Peak area
- Peak width
- Resolution
20.
Retention Time
Retention
time (tR) is the
time between sample injection and the maximum of the chromatographic peak for a
component.
Under
controlled conditions, retention time can assist in compound identification.
However,
retention time alone generally does not establish molecular identity with
certainty.
21.
Dead Time
The dead
time (tM) is the time required for an unretained species to pass through
the chromatographic system.
It is also
referred to as:
- Void time
- Hold-up time
depending
on the chromatographic context.
22.
Retention Factor in Column Chromatography
A commonly
used retention factor is:
where:
= retention time 
= dead/hold-up time
A larger 
generally indicates stronger retention relative to an
unretained species.
23.
Selectivity
Selectivity
describes how differently two compounds are retained.
A common
expression is:
where
compound 2 is more strongly retained than compound 1.
For the
usual convention:
24.
Chromatographic Resolution
Resolution
describes how well two adjacent peaks are separated.
A commonly
used equation is:
where:
and 
are retention times 
and 
are the corresponding baseline peak widths
Greater
resolution indicates better separation.
A
resolution around 1.5 is commonly regarded as approximately baseline
separation under conventional conditions.
25.
Column Efficiency
Chromatographic
efficiency is commonly expressed in terms of the number of theoretical
plates (N).
One common
equation is:
where 
is the peak width at the baseline.
Another
form using the width at half-height is:
A larger
number of theoretical plates generally indicates greater column efficiency.
26. Van
Deemter Equation
The
relationship between column efficiency and mobile-phase velocity is described
by the Van Deemter equation:
where:
= height equivalent to a theoretical plate 
= linear velocity of mobile phase 
= eddy diffusion term 
= longitudinal diffusion term 
= mass-transfer term
The
equation explains why there is often an optimum mobile-phase velocity for
maximum chromatographic efficiency.
27. Gas
Chromatography (GC)
Gas
chromatography separates compounds using a gas as the mobile phase.
According
to IUPAC, GC is always carried out in a column.
The
carrier gas may include gases such as:
- Helium
- Hydrogen
- Nitrogen
The
analyte is vaporized and transported through the column.
28.
Components of a Gas Chromatograph
A typical
GC system includes:
- Carrier-gas supply
- Flow-control system
- Injector
- Column
- Oven
- Detector
- Data system
Simplified
pathway
Carrier
gas → Injector → Column oven → Separation → Detector → Chromatogram
29. GC
Columns
Two major
types are:
Packed
columns
Contain
stationary phase packed inside a tube.
Capillary
columns
Have
stationary phase coated on the inner wall of a narrow capillary.
Capillary
columns generally provide high separation efficiency.
30. GC
Detectors
Important
detectors include:
Flame
ionization detector (FID)
Highly
useful for many organic compounds.
Thermal
conductivity detector (TCD)
A
relatively universal detector based on changes in thermal conductivity.
Electron-capture
detector (ECD)
Highly
sensitive toward certain electronegative compounds.
Mass
spectrometer
GC-MS
combines chromatographic separation with mass spectral information.
31.
Applications of Gas Chromatography
GC is
particularly useful for compounds that can be:
- Vaporized
- Transported through the column
- Thermally stable enough for
the analytical conditions
Applications
include analysis of:
- Volatile organic compounds
- Solvents
- Flavour compounds
- Environmental contaminants
- Petroleum-related compounds
- Metabolites after suitable
derivatization
32.
Two-Dimensional Chromatography
In
two-dimensional chromatography, a sample undergoes separation in two different
directions or dimensions using different separation conditions.
It can
provide considerably greater resolving power for complex mixtures.
Applications
include:
- Complex biological samples
- Metabolomics
- Proteomics
- Natural-product analysis
33.
Supercritical Fluid Chromatography
Supercritical-fluid
chromatography (SFC)
uses a supercritical fluid as the mobile phase.
Carbon
dioxide is commonly used as the principal mobile-phase component.
SFC can be
particularly useful for:
- Chiral separations
- Pharmaceutical analysis
- Organic compounds
- Compounds that are difficult
to separate efficiently by conventional GC or LC
34.
Chiral Chromatography
Chiral
chromatography separates molecules that are stereoisomers, especially enantiomers.
This is
important because two enantiomers can have different biological effects.
Chiral
separation can be achieved using:
- Chiral stationary phases
- Chiral mobile-phase additives
- Derivatization strategies
It has
major importance in pharmaceutical analysis.
35.
Multidimensional Chromatography
Complex
samples may contain hundreds or thousands of components.
A single
chromatographic dimension may not provide sufficient separation.
Multidimensional
approaches combine different separation mechanisms to increase peak capacity.
Examples
include:
- 2D-LC
- GC×GC
- LC×LC
36.
Preparative vs Analytical Chromatography
Analytical
chromatography
The
principal objective is to:
- Identify
- Quantify
- Characterize
components.
Preparative
chromatography
The
primary objective is to isolate and collect compounds.
|
Feature |
Analytical |
Preparative |
|
Main
purpose |
Analysis |
Purification |
|
Sample
quantity |
Usually
small |
Usually
larger |
|
Main
output |
Data/chromatogram |
Purified
material |
|
Emphasis |
Resolution
and quantification |
Recovery
and purity |
37.
Qualitative Analysis
Chromatography
can help determine what compounds are present.
Identification
may involve comparing:
- Retention time
- Rf
- Spectral information
- Standards
- Mass spectra
The
strongest identification generally comes from combining chromatographic
information with another independent analytical measurement.
38.
Quantitative Analysis
Chromatography
can also determine how much of a compound is present.
In many
detector-based methods:
A
calibration curve is generally prepared using standards of known concentration.
Quantification
can use:
- External standards
- Internal standards
- Standard addition
39.
Internal Standard Method
An
internal standard is a known compound added to standards and samples.
Quantification
may use the ratio:
This can
compensate for certain variations in injection volume and instrumental
response.
40.
Chromatography in Biochemistry
Chromatography
is fundamental to biochemical research.
It is used
to separate and purify:
Proteins
- Ion-exchange chromatography
- Size-exclusion chromatography
- Affinity chromatography
- Hydrophobic-interaction
chromatography
Nucleic
acids
- Ion-exchange chromatography
- Size-exclusion methods
- Affinity-based methods
- Specialized LC approaches
Amino
acids
- Ion-exchange chromatography
- HPLC
Carbohydrates
- HPLC
- Ion-exchange methods
- Size-based methods
Lipids
- TLC
- HPLC
- GC after appropriate sample
preparation
41.
Chromatography in Plant Science
Chromatography
is especially important in plant biology.
It can be
used to investigate:
- Chlorophylls
- Carotenoids
- Anthocyanins
- Flavonoids
- Alkaloids
- Plant hormones
- Secondary metabolites
- Phenolic compounds
- Volatile oils
For
example, TLC can provide a simple preliminary separation of plant pigments,
while HPLC can provide more sophisticated qualitative and quantitative
analysis.
42.
Chromatography in Pharmaceutical Science
Chromatographic
methods are extensively used in pharmaceutical research and quality control.
Applications
include:
- Drug identification
- Purity testing
- Assay
- Impurity analysis
- Stability studies
- Metabolite analysis
- Chiral purity
- Formulation analysis
HPLC is
particularly important because of its versatility and high resolving power.
43.
Chromatography in Environmental Science
Chromatography
can be used to analyze environmental samples for:
- Organic pollutants
- Pesticide residues
- Volatile compounds
- Industrial contaminants
- Persistent organic pollutants
GC-MS and
LC-MS are particularly powerful when chromatographic separation is combined
with mass spectrometric detection.
44.
Chromatography in Clinical Science
Chromatography
contributes to clinical and biomedical analysis.
Applications
include analysis of:
- Drugs and metabolites
- Steroid hormones
- Amino acids
- Lipids
- Vitamins
- Metabolic markers
Highly
specialized chromatographic methods can be used in clinical laboratories and
research.
45.
Chromatography in Proteomics
Protein
mixtures are extremely complex.
Chromatography
can separate proteins or peptides before further analysis.
A common
workflow is:
Protein
sample → digestion → peptide separation → mass spectrometry → identification
LC-MS/MS
is therefore a major technology in modern proteomics.
46.
Chromatography in Metabolomics
Metabolomics
involves studying large numbers of small molecules in biological systems.
Chromatography
helps reduce sample complexity before detection.
Common
combinations include:
- GC-MS
- LC-MS
- LC-UV
- LC-fluorescence
Different
chromatographic modes are selected according to the chemical properties of the
metabolites.
47.
Advantages of Chromatography
Major
advantages include:
- High separation efficiency
- High sensitivity in
instrumental methods
- Ability to analyze complex
mixtures
- Qualitative and quantitative
capability
- Small sample requirements for
many techniques
- Broad range of applications
- Possibility of purification
- Compatibility with detectors
such as MS
- Ability to separate closely
related compounds
48.
Limitations
Chromatography
also has limitations:
- Instruments can be expensive
- Method development can require
considerable expertise
- Solvent consumption can be
significant
- Some methods require extensive
sample preparation
- Columns can be damaged by
unsuitable samples
- Results can depend strongly on
experimental conditions
- Some analytes require
derivatization
- Matrix effects can complicate
quantitative analysis
49.
Factors Affecting Chromatographic Separation
Important
factors include:
Sample-related
factors
- Concentration
- Sample volume
- Molecular structure
- Polarity
- Charge
- Solubility
Stationary-phase
factors
- Particle size
- Surface chemistry
- Pore size
- Functional groups
- Column dimensions
Mobile-phase
factors
- Composition
- pH
- Ionic strength
- Polarity
- Flow rate
- Temperature
Instrumental
factors
- Injection conditions
- Detector settings
- Column temperature
- Pressure
- Data-processing parameters
50.
Common Chromatography Terminology
|
Term |
Meaning |
|
Stationary
phase |
Phase
that remains fixed |
|
Mobile
phase |
Phase
that moves |
|
Analyte |
Substance
being analyzed |
|
Eluent |
Mobile
phase entering a column |
|
Eluate |
Material
leaving a column |
|
Elution |
Process
of removing analytes from column |
|
Chromatogram |
Recorded
chromatographic signal |
|
Retention
time |
Time
associated with a retained peak |
|
Rf |
Retention
factor in planar chromatography |
|
Resolution |
Degree
of separation between peaks |
|
Selectivity |
Difference
in retention between compounds |
|
Theoretical
plate |
Measure
used to describe column efficiency |
|
Peak
area |
Often
related to analyte quantity |
51.
Important Comparison of Major Techniques
|
Technique |
Main
separation basis |
Stationary
phase |
Mobile
phase |
Major
use |
|
Paper
chromatography |
Partition |
Paper/cellulosic
medium |
Liquid |
Amino
acids, pigments |
|
TLC |
Adsorption/partition |
Silica/alumina |
Liquid |
Rapid
qualitative analysis |
|
Column
chromatography |
Adsorption/other
mechanisms |
Solid
packing |
Liquid |
Purification |
|
Ion
exchange |
Charge |
Charged
resin |
Liquid |
Proteins,
ions |
|
Size
exclusion |
Size |
Porous
beads |
Liquid |
Proteins,
polymers |
|
Affinity |
Specific
binding |
Immobilized
ligand |
Liquid |
Protein
purification |
|
HPLC |
Multiple
mechanisms |
Packed
column |
Liquid |
Analytical
chemistry |
|
GC |
Volatility/partition |
Column
stationary phase |
Gas |
Volatile
compounds |
|
SFC |
Multiple
mechanisms |
Packed
column |
Supercritical
fluid |
Chiral/pharmaceutical
analysis |
52.
Chromatography vs Electrophoresis
These
techniques are often compared in biological sciences.
|
Feature |
Chromatography |
Electrophoresis |
|
Driving
principle |
Differential
interaction with phases |
Movement
in electric field |
|
Major
separation factors |
Size,
charge, polarity, affinity, etc. |
Charge,
size, conformation |
|
Mobile
phase |
Liquid/gas/supercritical
fluid |
Buffer/electrolyte
system |
|
Common
applications |
Separation
and purification |
DNA/RNA/protein
analysis |
The choice of chromatographic method depends on the properties of the molecules being separated.
For
example:
- TLC → rapid qualitative
separation
- Paper chromatography → simple planar separation
- Column chromatography → purification
- Ion exchange → charge-based separation
- Size exclusion → size-based separation
- Affinity chromatography → highly selective biological
purification
- HPLC → high-resolution
liquid-phase analysis
- GC → volatile/thermally suitable
compounds
- LC-MS/GC-MS → separation plus highly
informative detection
Chromatography
therefore forms a bridge between separation, identification, purification
and quantitative analysis, making it indispensable across modern biological
and chemical sciences.
References
- IUPAC. Compendium of Chemical
Terminology (Gold Book), 5th ed. Entry: Chromatography. International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, 2025. DOI: 10.1351/goldbook.C01075.
- IUPAC. Nomenclature of
Chromatography / Analytical Compendium: Analytical Separation Methods.
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. The IUPAC analytical
compendium organizes chromatography terminology, chromatographic systems,
processes, retention parameters and chromatographic theory.
- IUPAC. Terminology of Separation
Methods. Pure and Applied Chemistry, 2018, 90(1), 181–231.
- Skoog, D.A., Holler, F.J.,
& Crouch, S.R.
Principles of Instrumental Analysis, 7th ed. Cengage Learning,
2018. This is a major reference for instrumental analytical methods,
including modern separation techniques.
- Skoog, D.A., Holler, F.J.,
& Crouch, S.R.
Principles of Instrumental Analysis, 7th ed. Cengage Learning. The
text emphasizes operating principles, applications, sensitivity, precision
and limitations of analytical instruments.
- IUPAC Gold Book. Gas Chromatography,
DOI: 10.1351/goldbook.G02578.
- IUPAC Gold Book. Gas-Liquid Chromatography,
DOI: 10.1351/goldbook.G02586.
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